How Cicero rose from nothing to become one of the most famous Senators in Rome

Table of Contents

Marcus Tullius Cicero is known today as one of the greatest orators and lawyers in Roman history. His leadership and steadfast commitment to his principles charted the Roman Republic through some of its toughest challenges, although it ultimately wouldn’t be quite enough. In 43 BCE, Cicero was beheaded on the orders of Mark Antony. Cicero’s hands, which had written so many pamphlets in defense of the republic, were severed and publicly displayed along with his head. As for as events signifying the end of the Roman Republic go, Cicero’s death is one of the most symbolic and gut-wrenching.

In this series of articles, we will explore why Cicero’s death was so impactful, beginning with his origins as a political outsider trying to make it in an unforgiving political landscape. The main source for these articles is Robert Harris’s Imperium trilogy (more information can be found here). In particular, in this post we’ll look at Cicero’s early years and the risky maneuver that made him one of the most famous men in Roman politics.

Early Life #

Cicero was born in Arpinum, a town about 60 miles outside of Rome. Although it may seem ridiculous today, this fact was repeatedly used to rebuke Cicero as an “outsider” or “foreigner”, which made his career an uphill battle from the start.

In his early years, Cicero spent much of his time studying philosophy, literature, and history. Holding great reverence for Ancient Greek orators such as Demosthenes, Cicero traveled to Rhodes to train in oratory under Apollonius Molon. It was here he learned learned how to effectively use his lungs to speak authoritatively and clearly. He also learned rhetorical tricks to subtly outmaneuver his opponents. When he felt he was ready, Cicero traveled to Rome to begin his political career.

Defense Attorney #

Cicero immediately got to work. He realized that as he had few connections and wasn’t particularly wealthy, his best bet was to slowly build up favor among the rich and powerful of the city, while at the same time taking care to avoid making enemies. Cicero thus became a defense attorney, taking various cases and building arguments for his clients. He quickly earned a reputation for his exceptional oratory abilities, and began to represent more and more famous Romans.

Within a few years, every morning a line of potential clients formed at Cicero’s door, hoping to get a word in with the brilliant young lawyer. Cicero’s skill was exceeded only by Quintus Hortensius, an aristocratic wordsmith renowned for his ability to give hour-long speeches from memory.

It was on one of these days that the opportunity of a lifetime landed on Cicero’s doorstep. Sthenius of Thermae, a Sicilian who had fled his home island, came to see Cicero. He explained that the current governor of Sicily, Gaius Verres, had threatened him with execution and stolen all his wealth. He begged Cicero for assistance.

Cicero was skeptical. On one hand, the man clearly seemed to be telling the truth, but on the other hand, Verres was a praetor and one of the most powerful men in Rome. To take the case would be to make some very powerful enemies, exactly what he had been trying to avoid by becoming a defense attorney. To complicate matters further, Sicilians at the time had not been granted Roman citizenship. To advocate on behalf of Sthenius could be seen as unpatriotic, as he would be supporting a foreigner over a Roman.

Cicero was about to decline to take the case, but he decided to first ask Sthenius why he had not gone to see Hortensius first. After all, Hortensius was the more prestigious lawyer and represented his best chance at justice. Sthenius replied that he had, and that in fact Hortensius had declined and was prepared to represent Verres.

With that, Cicero agreed to take the case. It was a chance to outwit his rival, and more than that, a chance to launch his career in political stardom. On the other hand, the level of influence and prestige of Hortensius and Verres could be devastating if he didn’t play his cards right. Cicero had to be sure that he wouldn’t irreparably damage his career.

The Prosecution #

As the news of Cicero beginning to build a case against Verres began to circle, Verres responded predictably. Sthenius was tried in Sicily on fabricated charges and convicted in his absence. He was sentenced to death. Sthenius could no longer be seen in public, so he had to hide in the slums of Rome.

More news about Verres’s abuses began to come in. Statues and paintings had been stolen from wealthy Sicilians and then resold for profit. People had been murdered for speaking out against the government. When Cicero went to check Verres’s records as governor in the National Archive, he found that all relevant information had been removed. This necessitated a visit to Sicily to collect evidence.

Cicero arrived in Sicily to find most of the island’s population strangely quiet. The fear of retribution clearly hung over everyone’s head. Knowing that Verres would attempt to hide any wrongdoing, Cicero decided to launch a nighttime raid on the tax collector’s office, which he was able to enter as official prosecutor of the Roman Senate. Verres clearly hadn’t expected Cicero to be so brash. Cicero found clear evidence of extortion, and along with eyewitness accounts of many of Verres’s atrocities, had an extremely strong case against him.

Return to Rome #

Hortensius had been busy in Cicero’s absence. By introducing additional legislation to the Senate, Hortensius hoped to delay the prosecution until after the consular elections, by which time Hortensius would be Roman Consul and could protect Verres from prosecution. In addition, Verres has bribed many members of the Senate with his stolen wealth. Despite Cicero’s rock-solid case, he was in serious trouble.

By this point, Cicero had a mountain of evidence and it would take weeks to sort through. The trial could take months on top of that. Thanks to Hortensius’s delaying tactics, Cicero couldn’t afford to wait. Banking on the shock value of Verres’s atrocities to gain sympathy with the Senate, Cicero decided to make his case within the span of ten days. Thus began one of the most famous series of speeches of Cicero’s career, In Verrem.

The Trial #

If only the audacity of [Verres’s] designs were equalled by his secrecy in carrying them out, he might perhaps have contrived, at some time or in some detail, to hide them from me. But it has very fortunately come about, hitherto, that his incredible audacity has been accompanied by unparalleled folly.
Cicero, In Verrem, 1

Based on the advice of his wife Terentia, Cicero decided on a policy of total transparency with the jury. He accused Hortensius of trying to delay the trial, justifying his short timeframe. Rather than proceeding with a legal argument and historical precedence as he would usually do, after his opening statement Cicero immediately began calling witnesses.

The evidence was overwhelming. Sicilians who had been beaten by Verres’s cronies bemoaned their treatment. Cicero gave evidence of Verres accepting bribes from pirates to allow them to freely attack Roman commerce. He explained how Verres had illegally tried and convicted Sthenius in absentia.

But most emotionally affecting of all was the story of Publius Gavius. Gavius was a Roman citizen who had been a trader on a Spanish merchant ship captured by Verres. Gavius had pleaded that he was a citizen and should be given a fair trial, but he was beaten and then crucified, all the while repeating “I am a Roman citizen.” The cross was placed on the shore of Sicily facing Italy, so that Gavius could see the country across the water where he might have lived out the rest of his years.

The egregiously illegal and sadistic nature of the last account was the final nail in the coffin. Verres was banished from Rome, never to be politically relevant again. On the other hand, Cicero was famous. He had fought Hortensius one on one and was overwhelmingly victorious. He had proven himself a young star of the Roman Senate, and combined with his election to aedile earlier in the year, looked to have a very promising career ahead of him.

It wasn’t all sunshine and rainbows though. Cicero had made some powerful enemies. This would come back to bite him, almost fatally, in the Catalinarian Conspiracy.