The attempted coup that nearly toppled the Republic - The Catalinarian Conspiracy (62 BCE)

In the last post, we saw how Cicero’s prosecution of the Sicilian governor Gaius Verres catapulted him into political stardom. This was a huge boost to his career, but it didn’t come without making him a few enemies. In the next handful of years, Cicero deftly maneuvered his way into being elected praetor, then consul, but built himself a steadily longer list of enemies in the process.

In this post, we will investigate the backlash that one of the greatest statesmen in Roman history received for his quick ascent up the political chain, and how it nearly brought the Republic crashing down. Of course, this respite would only be temporary, as the Republic would come to an end some twenty years later at the hands of Caesar. Still, to preserve the Republic as long as it lasted was a great achievement. So, what was this conspiracy about, and how did Cicero manage to outwit it?

Catilina #

The story begins with Lucius Sergius Catilina, for whom the conspiracy is named. Catilina had served a term as governor of Africa from 67 to 66 BCE, and was notoriously corrupt. Although not as egregious as Verres, Catilina was also prosecuted for the crimes he committed during his tenure. He tried to stand for the consular elections, but could not due to the ongoing trial.

At this time, Cicero was still a praetor. Hoping to make a powerful friend who could aid him in his quest for the consulship, Cicero considered defending Catilina. Catalina was understandably pleased to have the greatest advocate in Rome on his side. However, after carefully reviewing the evidence of the case, Cicero realized that Catilina was clearly guilty, and considered that it would look hypocritical to defend him. Cicero backed out of the defense, angering Catilina.

The prosecutor was Clodius, at the time a good friend of Cicero. The trial was close, but Catilina was acquitted of the charges. This is important because Catilina would instead have to stand for consul in the fall of 63 BCE, the same year as Cicero.

The Consular Elections #

Catilina was the most popular candidate among the elite in Rome, while Cicero was more popular among the people. Thus, Cicero sought to form an alliance with him in quest for the consulship. However, Catilina rebuked him.

Owing back to his prosecution of the artistocrat Verres, Cicero wasn’t exactly popular with Roman patricians. Cicero learned that the aristocracy was backing a joint ticket of Gaius Antonius Hybrida and Catilina. Further, they had the financial support of the richest man in Rome, Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus had the means to bribe Roman voters en masse, meaning that Cicero was in deep trouble.

Cicero decided to gather more information. After some digging, he uncovered a wider plot orchestrated by Crassus, a young Julius Caesar, and Catalina involving introducing sweeping land reform bills that would strip power from the aristocracy and destabilize the country. Cicero informed Hortensius and other aristocrats about what was happening, and they turned on Catalina. In the end, Cicero won the consular election in a landslide, and Hybrida came in second.

Cicero soon became the most powerful man in Rome. When drawing lots for governorship of provinces, Cicero drew Macedonia, the most sought-after province. Meanwhile, Hybrida drew Nearer Gaul, one of the poorer provinces. Cicero shrewdly made a deal with Hybrida—Cicero would agree to swap governorships with Hybrida in exchange for Hybrida agreeing to stay out of his way in running the country.

Catilina did not take this well. He had been certain of a consular victory, only to have it ripped away from him. Angry and disappointed at his defeat in the consular elections, he vowed to get revenge. Thus began the seeds of conspiracy.

Catalina’s Conspiracy

Catalina began to form a group of senators who had grievances with Cicero and the Roman aristocracy. For example, Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura had recently rejoined the senate after briefly exiled for immorality (incidentally, he was the step-father of Mark Antony). He was looking to get back at those who did him wrong. Another member of the conspiracy was Publius Autronius Paetus, a former consul who had been stripped of his seat on charges of bribery.

In the next year’s consular elections, Catilina ran for consul again. Cicero obviously didn’t want to let his enemy become consul, so he backed the relatively unknown army officer Lucius Licinius Murena. To get Murena elected, he organized a triumph around the time of elections, so that Murena’s army buddies from the Third Mithridatic War would be in Rome to vote for him.

This was the final straw for Catilina. Realizing what was happening, he made up his mind: he would eliminate Cicero once and for all. Cicero, having caught wind of the conspiracy by this point, became incredibly nervous. He believed that Catilina and his co-conspirators planned to kill him during the elections, when Cicero would be out in the open on the Field of Mars. As a precaution, Cicero wore body armor and was accompanied at all times by a troop of bodyguards.

Predictably, Murena was elected and Catilina came in third place yet again. In addition, Julius Caesar was elected praetor during this election, one of the most important first steps in his career. Cicero survived the day without incident.

The Conspiracy Unmasked #

One night, Crassus came to see Cicero with a group of senators. Crassus told Cicero that he had received letters warning him that Catalina was planning a massacre of Roman citizens. Also, there were reports of an army gathering in the northern region of Etruria.

Knowing that Crassus and Catilina had worked closely together in the past, Cicero wasn’t entirely convinced by Crassus’s concerned act. Perhaps Catilina’s violent methods had caused Crassus to turn on him. Nevertheless, this was exactly the evidence Cicero needed to get rid of Catilina.

“How much further, Catilina, will you carry your abuse of our forbearance? How much longer will your reckless temper baffle our restraint? What bounds will you set to this display of your uncontrolled audacity?”

— Cicero, In Catilinam, 1

The letters were read aloud in the Roman Senate, and combined with eyewitness evidence from Etruria connecting Catilina directly to the uprising, Catilina was indicted and fled the city. Crassus, seeing an opportunity, asked to be in charge of the army that would fight the rebellion, but Cicero was suspicious of his intentions. Instead, he made a deal with the general Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer: Celer would lead the army in exchange for Cicero’s governorship of Nearer Gaul. Recall that this is the second time Cicero had traded his province for political favors.

Crushing the Rebellion #

Celer quickly marched north to prevent Catilina from escaping. With three legions, he blocked the mountain passes to Transalpine Gaul, trapping Catilina in Italy. A second army, under the command of Hybrida, was then sent to encircle Catilina and the rebels. Hybrida had gout on the day of the battle, so the army was instead commanded by his lieutenant Marcus Petreius.

At the Battle of Pistoria, Catilina’s army was annihilated and Catilina himself killed. The only members of the conspiracy remaining were senators that had remained in Rome. Roman law demanded that they be put on trial, but seeing as they were part of a dangerous conspiracy that sought to kill the active consul, it was something of a special case.

The issue was brought before the Senate. The conservative senator Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis argued for the death penalty without trial owing to the conspirators’ damage to the Republic, while Julius Caesar argued that exile was sufficient. The Senate leaned toward Cato’s proposal. In the end, under the direction of Cicero it was decided that the five senators would be put to death.

Aftermath #

A few months later marked the end of Cicero’s consulship, which was probably the high water mark of his popularity. He had been personally targeted by corrupt senators, survived, and successfully eliminated them while keeping true to his republican principles. He and Cato were seen as heroes of the Republic.

However, approving the execution of five citizens without trial would come back to haunt Cicero. The populist Clodius would use it as a talking point in the years to follow, in which Cicero’s popularity would decline greatly. Once again, what had seemed like the right thing to do at the time would have extremely serious consequences.